Whether it is climate change, pollution of water resources, not adhering to good management practices in water resource management, there is one culprit: the human race. Degradation of the environment is done by humans, polluting water resources is done by humans, mismanagement of the resource that sustains them is done by humans. Problems are created by humans, and they can only be solved by humans, not by any unseen divine entity. The one place where humans live and can live, the earth, is being destroyed by these very humans.
by Raj Gonsalkorale, Janendra De Costa, Vijith Gunawardena and Mohanlal Peiris
A discussion on water resources and the anticipated scarcity of fresh water is timely in the backdrop of the economic crisis being experienced by the country now, a man-made crisis, primarily by the political leaders, but also by the general community as well. It is not the intention of this article to discuss the economic crisis. Suffice to say however that if the country had adequate financial resources, this crisis would not have been a crisis. However, the difference with a crisis relating to water resources, again mostly man made, is that it will not get solved with financial resources. Money will not be able to buy the country out of a water resource crisis. Besides this, a water resource crisis will impact on virtually all other resources that sustains life.
The belief that water is a ‘renewable source’ is somewhat misplaced. Water is not replenished like most renewable resources and instead reused. If we were constantly losing water, then the speed at which water forms would not be very sustainable, and it would become a nonrenewable resource. As water continuously evaporates from the Earth's surface, it collects in the atmosphere to later come back to the Earth as rain. On the Earth itself surface water replenishes groundwater, and groundwater may eventually seep into streams, lakes, and oceans. Water may be considered a renewable resource if due care and attention is paid to the careful management and responsible usage of water with strict limitations on maintaining the water balance. Uncontrolled extraction of water from fresh ground water aquifers, shallow as well as deep, will lead to the gradual depletion of the aquifer, lowering the water tables and intrusion of contaminants. The freshwater aquifers along the coastal belt in the dry zone is at imminent risk without measures to limit extraction and ensuring replenishment and recharge of these aquifers during wet periods to minimize lowering of the freshwater tables and be contaminated through saltwater intrusion. Even wet countries like UK adopt these measures to protect their fresh ground water resources in certain parts of the country.
Perhaps the biggest challenge for the people of Sri Lanka and its opinion makers, importantly the media, is to raise awareness amongst the people about the limit of water resources, the predicted scarcity of fresh water, the unsustainable use of available water, and the need to conserve water, and issues like the pollution of rivers, waterways, lakes, wells and reservoirs that hold fresh water, and also the pollution of oceans, especially with plastic and other forms of waste and its impact on marine life and consequently on other forms of lives including humans. The typical Sri Lankan attitude of “Nava Gilunath Band Chune”, a belief that better days will come again irrespective of any disaster faced, the origin of the phrase possibly a misplaced reference to the sinking of the Titanic where the ship’s band continued to play while the ship was sinking and were the last to jump off the ship, will not work with a water resource crisis as it is one that is years in the making before it becomes a crisis, and which cannot be bailed out with money, but only through an ongoing process of prevention from the outset. Once it becomes a crisis, it may be impossible to repair the damage and revert to a semblance of normalcy, and even if this were possible, it would take a very long time, perhaps many decades, for this to happen.
It is hoped that this article, and many others that have been written, and the huge amounts of Sri Lankan and worldwide research done and data available relating to these issues, will prompt these opinion makers and the media to raise awareness amongst the people about the likely crisis unless corrective action is taken now. Water resources are often discussed, researched, and harnessing policies developed, with a focus on irrigation and agriculture. This no doubt is a centrality in any discussion on water. However, the use of water resources for drinking, industries, hydropower, fisheries, as a medium for transportation, even leisure, are areas that needs to be considered from the broader context of treating water as an essential resource with multiple uses.
A futuristic, sustainable water management policy for Sri Lanka
In the introductory article titled “A futuristic, sustainable land management policy for Sri Lanka” published in several newspapers and journals, the authors drew readers attention to the even broader context of water as a composite of what is termed “land”. Land was described as having a relationship to agriculture, fisheries, hydropower, energy in general including renewable energy, forestry, wildlife protected areas, biodiversity and very importantly, climate change. The objective of presenting this broader context was to highlight the inter dependence of each of these to sustainability of the whole, which was termed “land”, for the present generation, but more importantly, for future generations. The maximisation of the effectiveness and efficiency of the use of water resources, its sustainability, its quality, and its access, which is the theme of this article, therefore has to be viewed from the broader prism of what was termed “Land”. Similarly, water, and all composites of water, and the whole which has been termed land, has to be considered from the point of view anticipation of threats, and what needs to be done to address such threats, and not reactions to threats when they occur. In this context, what is needed is a futuristic, sustainable water management policy for the country.
The World Bank, in a feature titled “Sri Lanka’s Water Resources: Preserving Identity, Transforming Lives” (https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2021/03/22/srilankas-water-resources) states succinctly what water means to Sri Lanka. Quote “From the ancient times, this vital natural resource has been intertwined with the lives of each and every Sri Lankan. The historical and cultural links between water and the Sri Lankan populace can be seen from the country’s agricultural economy. Ancient Kings built tanks and reservoirs to cultivate acres of paddy fields. As a result, crop yields improved along with the lives of farmers and their families. These practices have continued to this day, with water being increasingly used in other industrial sectors like power generation and construction as well. The water-intensive garment and textile industry is one of the main drivers of industrial growth and the country’s leading export sector accounting for more than 40 percent of total exports and employing 15 percent of the labour force, which is over half a million people. The tourism sector, which relies heavily on water to run hotels and provide services, is the third largest source of foreign exchange earnings in the country and is estimated to contribute about 4.5 percent to the GDP. It employs over 350,000 Sri Lankans”. This statement underpins the expression “What use is land without water and water of doubtful quality? and encapsulates the background to this article with clarity and precision. The theme of the article however is more about threats to this essential resource and measures that need to be taken to preserve this vital resource for posterity.
'Water' particularly 'fresh water' or good quality water is not a resource that is in abundance as it is generally perceived. Water scarcity is a clear and imminent risk even for countries like Sri Lanka which has been blessed with adequate water resources in the past. Climate change is inextricably linked to water, and it is critical to focus on mitigation measures to minimise the impact. Mitigations would crucially need to include water conservation and reuse/recycling for multi purposes.
Most urban centres and small towns and even some rural areas in Sri Lanka now benefit from pipe borne water supply systems. Most systems extract water from surface water bodies while others from fresh ground water aquifers. Extraction of water from both these sources are largely uncontrolled and both sources are subjected to extreme pressures with over extraction and unprecedented contamination from external sources through the discharge of untreated or partially treated wastewater, infiltration of chemicals or saltwater intrusion. Treatment of wastewaters to appropriate standards for recycling or reuse for industrial or agricultural purposes if not for potable use, will alleviate water stress to some extent. At a fundamental level, urbanisation and in opening of land for domestic dwelling units, the extraction of surface water from wells, without adequate safeguards relating to pollution even from toilet waste from the adjoining block has been largely ignored. Such pollution could then extend to large tracts of surface water and eventually to ground water aquifers.
General global information
Consideration of the following information on water is necessary when discussing how threats may be addressed before they occur. Water covers around 70 percent of the Earth's surface, comes in the forms of freshwater and saltwater and water is integral to the survival of all living things. Oceans contain more than 90 percent of the Earth's natural water reserves. The Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans provide a home to an array of life on the earth. Freshwater makes up only 3 percent of the water on earth, and of this, 30 percent is found as groundwater. The balance 70% is found in lakes, rivers and streams. Fresh water supply (as against sea or salt water) available for irrigation, agriculture, as potable water, for hydro power etc, is therefore very limited. Polluting this supply and degrading its quality therefore has serious consequences. While one may imagine, mistakenly, that the vastness of the oceans makes them better able to withstand pollution, the impact on the food chain in the oceans is seriously underestimated.
Water scarcity occurs when water resources are consumed more rapidly than they are replenished, when safe water resources are contaminated or when conflict prevents a person from accessing safe water. Water scarcity is worsening as the demand for water grows due to population growth and development, and as climate change affects the quantity and quality of water supplies. Water scarcity can exacerbate inequities, migration, conflict, and economic crises.
Predicted freshwater scarcity
UNICEF states that (https://www.unicef.org/reports/reimagining-wash-water-security-for-all) quote, “today, 1.42 billion people – including 450 million children live in areas of high or extremely high-water vulnerability. Decades of misuse, poor management, over-extraction of groundwater and contamination of freshwater supplies have exacerbated water stress. At the same time, demand for water is rising due to rapid population growth, urbanization and increasing water needs from a range of sectors. Climate change and extreme weather events are compounding water stress. The resulting impact on children’s health, development, and safety threatens the significant progress made in child survival and sustainable development over the past several decades. It is putting children’s lives at risk today and threatens future generations. By 2040, 1 in 4 children worldwide and 155 million in South Asia alone will be living in areas experiencing water scarcity” unquote. UNICEF goes onto say that to address water scarcity, it is imperative to assesses the availability of water resources, support the water sector to improve the management of water resources and infrastructure, and promote technical and behavioral solutions for sustainable and efficient water use. These among others include:
• Government to prioritize water security in adaptation plans, national commitments and increase funding allocations
• Management of water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services as a business opportunity with higher value proposition (e.g. energy, water, and income generation)
• Companies innovate and scale WASH solutions as “core business” operations
• Young people are activated as agents of change for sustainable use & management of water and protection of the environment
The Asian Development Bank, in a document titled “Asian Water Development Outlook (AWDO) 2020: Advancing Water Security across Asia and the Pacific (https://www.adb.org/publications/asian-water-development-outlook-2020) states that “despite considerable achievements in the region since the AWDO 2013 edition, 1.5 billion people in rural areas and 0.6 billion in urban areas still lack adequate water supply and sanitation. Sound water management and access to reliable service delivery remain vital to inclusive economic growth and social well-being, especially after the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic. AWDO 2020 includes two new sections highlighting the importance of finance and governance to water security as well as case studies demonstrating how the AWDO has influenced policy development in four countries.
Pollution and death
Modern Waste Services (https://www.alliancedsp.com/about/) provides some shocking information related to deaths occurring dues to pollution. It cites the following, quote, “the image shown here is a graph provided by Statista. It illustrates the effects of pollution all around the world, air, water, and etc. The top three nations with the greatest number of pollution related deaths per year are India, China, and Nigeria, with India being responsible for 2.33 million deaths and Nigeria being responsible for 279,318 deaths per year. This is in 2019 alone, and some forms of pollution keep increasing every year. A 2016 preliminary assessment of the water quality situation in rivers in Latin America, Africa and Asia…estimates that severe pathogenic pollution affects around one third of all rivers, severe organic pollution around one seventh of all rivers, and severe and moderate salinity pollution around one-tenth of all rivers in these regions.”
This analysis reported by the United Nations Environment Programme illustrates what water pollution looks like all over the world. When you look into some of the countries located said mentioned continents, you can kind of get an idea of what they’re talking about. China is one of the biggest producers in the world, so you would expect the country to be troubled with air pollution as well as water pollution, due to the waste created by industrial factories as well as the incorrect and improper disposal of said waste. Though some countries in Africa such as Libya and Ghana not only have contaminated water, but also lack of resources and money to remedy their problem. That is why so many people in these impoverished countries contract various and dangerous ailments, and they often end up dying, especially young children or older adults with weakened immune systems” unquote
Marine Pollution
One of the most telling futuristic predications as far as marine pollution is concerned is made by Conservation International (https://www.conservation.org/stories/ocean-pollution) saying that quote, “by 2050, ocean plastic will outweigh all of the ocean’s fish. The ocean is the origin and the engine of all life on this planet — and it is under threat. A big part of the problem: pollution. So how does trash get into the ocean? It’s dumped, pumped, spilled, leaked, and even washed out with our laundry. Each year, we expose the world’s waterways to an increasing variety of pollutants — plastic debris, chemical runoff, crude oil and more. Eight million metric tons: That’s how much plastic we dump into the oceans each year. That’s about 17.6 billion pounds — or the equivalent of nearly 57,000 blue whales — every single year” unquote.
There is an abundance of futuristic information based on research studies pertaining to fresh water and sea water and all these have a common thread in that they are in unison by predicting a major catastrophe when it comes to fresh water and marine life in sea water. The information given above and much more that is available in the international domain no doubt confirms the widely known, but hardly noticed, degree of degradation by human beings of the single most critical resource that sustains all forms of life on earth. What is not clear is what and how much is being done to arrest this degradation before it is too late.
The Sri Lankan situation – Lack of a water management policy
Sri Lanka’s freshwater resources derive from 103 rivers, which have a total length of 4,560 km, some 14,000 ancient human-made reservoirs, springs, more than 20 significant wetlands and groundwater resources, and the annual renewable groundwater resources estimated at 7.8 km. The annual rainfall in different regions of Sri Lanka varies between 800 mm to more than 5,000 mm.
These sustain human and other fauna and flora, provides for hydro power generation and biodiversity. In tropical climates such as that of Sri Lanka, rainfall is the primary feature that defines climate and climate change.
Many research work on the Sri Lankan water situation however seems to cover an approach that is vital on the one hand as it covers the all-important aspect of agriculture and potability, but not depicting the broader context of water from the point of view of its interconnectedness to several other areas. These being fisheries (both maritime and fresh water), hydropower, energy in general including renewable energy, forestry, wildlife protected areas, bio diversity and very importantly, climate change. There does not seem to be an overall policy framework that covers this broader context of water. In an in depth research work titled ‘A review on water governance in Sri Lanka: the lessons learnt for future water policy formulation published in the journal of the World Water Council in January 2021 (https://iwaponline.com/wp/article/23/2/255/80096/A-review-on-water-governance-in-Sri-Lanka-the), researchers highlight critical challenges for future water policy formulation in Sri Lanka and states that “the policy formulation for water resources management in Sri Lanka had been done on several occasions; however, Sri Lanka still owns neither an approved water policy nor a follow-up procedure for a policy”.
This paper brings to light a vacuum that exists, and which needs to be addressed, a water policy for Sri Lanka which must extend to the broader context of water, and which has to be enforceable with wide ranging powers granted by law to an independent agency. Despite the seeming adequacy of fresh water, the fragility of this availability from the point of view of global climate change and issues like pollution need to be considered when formulating a water policy. Excessive rain falls and flash floods, prolonged periods of drought and flash droughts are experienced today, and a further deterioration of this situation would be potentially catastrophic to the country. Two issues that are of critical interest for the sustainability of life is water quality arising from pollution and other factors, and the question of optimum utilisation of water as a resource that sustains life.
Water contamination
In regard to pollution, both sea water and fresh water, the Sri Lanka National Water Development Report (2006) pointed out a variety of quality concerns in Sri Lanka, including contamination by nitrate and bacteria in underground and surface waters mainly due to poor sanitation and untreated wastewater or insufficient wastewater treatment, toxic chemicals from industrial and agricultural activities, and eutrophication in lakes/reservoirs. The report covers deterioration of water quality in rivers, lakes and reservoirs, coastal water and ground water. In all or most instances, the excessive use of inorganic fertilisers, weedicides and pesticides in some areas and industrial effluents polluting water sources have been reported. Treatment of wastewater to prevent contamination of fresh water sources is critical to the suitability of the limited freshwater resources. Varying levels of treatment will facilitate its re-use for appropriate purposes. Industries should be required to treat their wastewater to standards that they are able to recycle and reuse much of it.
Dilrukshi Handunetti, in a report done in June 2019 for MONGABAY, says that microplastics, and overfishing are the leading causes of extensive marine pollution in Sri Lanka, as per a new survey and for the first of its kind carried out in 40 years, showing that the island’s fish stock had dropped drastically by about 80 percent, in part due to high levels of microplastic contamination. Researchers believed the island’s northwestern seas had recorded the highest levels of marine pollution, while seas to the east remain rich with marine life and should be made a conservation priority. It is noteworthy that UNOPS has just signed an Agreement with the South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme (SACEP), an intergovernmental organization headquartered in Sri Lanka, to support them in the implementation of the World Bank funded Plastic Free Rivers and Seas for South Asia Project (PLEASE). This agreement will benefit Sri Lanka as well
-To be continued
The authors: Raj Gonsalkorale, MBA, International Management Consultant, Janendra De Costa, BSc (Agric) PhD, Senior Professor and Chair of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Vijith Gunawardena, BA, Land Management Practitioner, Mohanlal Peiris, BSc(Hons), MSc (Loughborough University), DipWEM, CEng, Regional Water and Sanitation Specialist at UNICEF Regional Office for South Asia (ROSA)
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