Fa-Hsien in Sri Lanka

by Prof. K.N.O.Dharmadasa

(September 29, Colombo, Sri Lanka Guardian) Sri Lanka being an island and being centrally located in the sea-routes of the Asian region has attracted many a traveller from the Orient as well as the Occident. There were many attractions in the island in ancient times. The island has been famous for its precious stones and pearls. It had been producing high quality spices. With such attractions it had become a busy centre of trading activity. Leaving aside these mundane matters, the island Sihaladipa, as it was called then, was to acquire fame as a centre of Theravada Buddhism. It so happened because the teachings of Sakyamuni Buddha, which had been introduced to the island in the 3rd century BCE, and which had been thus far preserved through memory by successive generations of monks, were written down for the first time about two hundred years later, thus ensuring the authenticity of the texts. The island thereafter gained fame as the place where the teachings of the Buddha were preserved in their pristine purity thus earning the appellation Dhammadiipa ( the island of the Dhamma). The island thus was to attract many a traveller with spiritual aspirations, particularly those who wanted to know the teachings of the Buddha in their authentic form. When we peruse the list of this category of visitors, the name of the Chinese monk Fa – Hsien ranks very high because of the respect he commands for his unrelenting commitment to a spiritual cause, as well as for the wealth of information he provides us about the state of the Buddhist society in the island at the time of his stay here. Theravada Buddhist cannon, introduced to the island in the 3rd century BCE, had been handed down orally, by different schools of "reciters" (bhanaka) who specialized in each of the sub-divisions, was finally committed to writing in the 1st century BCE. This was a highly significant event because the Buddha’s original teachings were to disappear soon in India, the land of their birth, thus prompting the observation that the writing down of the Buddhist cannon was "the greatest contribution that the Sinhalese people had made to the intellectual heritage of mankind." ( Paranavitana, 1959 :268).

Not only did Sri Lanka preserve the original texts of the Buddha’s words, but also preserved a highly valued set of the commentaries, again introduced in the 3rd century along with the original texts. The commentaries were to get enlarged in Sri Lanka, the Sinhalese monks adding periodically their own intellectual input as well as additional historical information. Two foreign savants who became attracted in the 5th century by this great religious and intellectual wealth the island possessed were Fa-Hsien Thero from China and Buddhaghosa Thero from India, both of them incidentally arriving in the island during the reign of king Mahanama ( 406 – 428). The fact that Sri Lanka’s fame as a repository of the Buddhist teachings had spread far and wide in the Asian region is attested by the fact that Buddhaghosa who was born and got ordained as a Bhikkhu in India was urged by his teacher to go to "Lanka" because "here we neither possess the commentaries, nor the traditions coming down from the various teachers. But in Lanka there are commentaries originally brought down by the wise Mahinda and later translated into the language of the island. Go there and study them , so that they may be beneficial to all." ( The Mahavamsa, Ch XXXVII, verses 228-30). The thriving state of Buddhism in Sri Lanka can also be gauged from the fact that when China wanted to establish a Buddhist nun’s (Bhikkhuni) Order it was Sri Lanka who provided the resources, King Mahanama himself sending the required number of Bhikkhunis who established the Bhikkhuni Order in China (Weerasinghe,1995 : 57)).

Among the many foreign Buddhist dignitaries who have visited Sri Lanka down the annals of history the names of Buddhaghosa and Fa – Hsien stand foremost. Fa- Hsien in particular has been admired for his singularity of purpose and indomitable courage and perseverance in facing many an adversity in the pursuit of a spiritual purpose even at an advanced age. He was 65 years old when he set out on his journey and for 14 years he was engaged in an arduous journey collecting the sacred books he wanted to take back to China. The admiration with which he is treated in Sri Lanka can be seen in the fact that his travel book has been translated several times into Sinhala. The deep impression left by Fa-Hsien Thero on the popular mind can be gauged from the fact that there is a folk belief in the Ratnapura District wherein is located the Sri Pada mountain, bearing the shrine of the foot-print of the Buddha, that Fa-Hsien Thero stayed for some time in a cave en-route to the shrine. This cave is popularly known as "Fahien Guhava"(Fa- Hsien Cave).

In order to illustrate the respect Fa – Hsien Thero commands among the Sinhalese I wish to put into English two excerpts from two well=known scholars who have translated the account of Fa-Hsien’s travels into Sinhala. "During the course of his journey, some people who had originally set out with him turned back after some time and returned to China. Some others died on the way.Some stayed back in India. Fa-Hsien Thero was left alone. But this great hero was determined not to break his resolve and continued his journey and finally arrived in Lanka, stayed there for some time, and having obtained the books he wanted, embarked a ship, and finally arrived at the city of Chien-kin. By then fourteen years had elapsed from the date he set out…This great Thero, verily a Bodhisatva (Buddha – to – be) with unrelenting courage, who had his heart set in the illumination of the Sasana (the Buddhist dispensation) and who had set an example to others with his unblemished and lofty character, passed away on his eighty sixth year." (Fa-Hsien, Sung-Yung Denamage Gaman Vitti, Balangoda Ananada Maitreya Thero, Maharagama, Saman Press, 1958, p.ii)

The above writer is the late Balangoda Ananda Maitreya Maha Thero, one of the most respected Buddhist prelates in modern Sri Lanka. The second quotation is from the introduction to the translation by Prof. Wimal G. Balagalle, Emeritus Professor of Sinhala in Sri Jayewardenepura University. "Fa – Hsien is one among the greatest figures in world history. Among the voyagers of ancient times only a few can equal the accomplishments Fa-Hsien in successfully completing the task initiated with a firm determination and steadfastness of mind. Whoever that reads his life-story will realize that he set out on his journey and worked until his last moments without any selfish motive. The whole world benefited from his self-sacrifice. He has been of great service not only to China but to the whole world." ( Fa-hienge Deshatana Vartava, Prof. Wimal G.Balagalle, (1957) Second ed. 1999, Boralesgamuva, Visidunu, p.21).

The above statements by two eminent Sri Lankan scholars indicate why they consider this Chinese visitor of ancient times with such great regard and thought it fit to introduce him to the modern reader who would not have been much conversant with the details of his contribution. Reading through Fa-Hsien Thero’s travelogue, one is impressed by his unhesitating admiration of pious monks wherever he met them in the 30 or so kingdoms he visited during this long period. Similarly, his deep commitment to the Buddha’s teachings and the indomitable courage he faced the myriad trials and tribulations on his way, and his unrelenting desire to fulfill his mission, have been noted by these Sri Lankan scholars: "What Fa-Hsien who arrived back in China having overcome all the dangers and difficulties was not going forth to his hometown to meet relatives and friends. He proceeded to the city of Chien-Kaand and along with the assistance of the Indian teacher named Buddhabhadra he started the task of translating into Chinese the books he had brought down." (Balagalle: 20)

Furthermore, the Sri Lankan scholars have admired the non-partisan attitude of Fa- Hsien Thero when recording what he observed in the many and varied Buddhist societies he visited. A fact that clearly reflects Fa-Hsien’s respect for the truth and his non-partisan attitude is his recording of the noble qualities of anyone whom he associated with, irrespective of Hinayana-Mahayana divisionism. "Fa-Hsien himself was a Mahayana monk. But he speaks highly of the virtues and piety of the Hinayana monks he came across (Balagalle:21)."

As the history of the spread of Buddhism shows the introduction of Buddhism to the Chinese region seems to have started as early as the 3rd century BCE. After several other sporadic forays into the region, there was an official recognition during the reign of Emperor Ming (58 - 78 CE). While the new religion was growing rapidly in popularity, there arose a great desire to study the Buddhist scriptures. The Emperor himself is said to have sent a mission to India to obtain Buddhist books and to invite monks to China. Thus began a lively intercourse between the Buddhist societies in South Asia and China, in which Sri Lanka, being a repository of the Theravada cannon, was to play an important role. The steady growth of Buddhism in China is attested by available records that by the year 500CE the whole of the Chinese region had become Buddhist ( Dutt, 1956: 163) There was a problem however. Buddhism in China at the time was strongly adulterated with pre-Buddhist beliefs. It was therefore felt by the few who knew the problem that they must turn to the homeland of the religion, India, to obtain the orthodox doctrine and purify the practices in China. Fa-Hsien’s visit to India and thence to Sri Lanka was prompted by that consideration. He was one of the many "pilgrims" who set out from China in order to collect the sacred books on the teachings of the Buddha and the rules of discipline (vinaya) governing the order of monks. Records indicate that no less than 162 such "pilgrims" set forth to India during this period. The most famous among them were Fa-Hsien ( 400 - 414) ,Yuan Chwang (629 - 646) and I-Tsing ( 672-695) whose travel accounts have been translated into other languages

As could be expected in a situation of rapid popularity of a religion the disciplinary conduct of many of those who enter the religious order, the monks, could become lax causing concern among the rule-bound elders of the fraternity. That seems to have happened with regard to the Buddhist order at the time and Fa-Hsien, who was 65 years of age when he set out on hid "pilgrimage", appears to have been one who was intent on establishing the authentic vinaya (rules of discipline) among the Chinese monkhood.The incompleteness of the Vinaya Pitaka ( the compendium of the rules of discipline) in its Chinese version was for him a matter of grave concern .He along with a group of nine others set out from central Chins in a mission to India in search of books which they could bring down to remedy such lacunae. Fourteen years later,when he alone among the original "pilgrims" returned to China, he had fulfilled his resolve bringing down a copy of the Vinyapitaka of the Mahisasakas, the Dirghagama, and Samyuttagama and also the Samyutta-sancaya (Legge, 1965 : 111)

As a traveller in unknown territories Fa-Hsien faced many a danger on his way. He describes in detail the perils of the road as well as the heart-warming state of Buddhism in some of the communities he came across. Thus for example, the crossing of the Gobi desert on foot was so arduous that he felt the "presence of a great many evil spirits " along with "hot winds." He felt that "those who encounter them perish to a man. There are neither birds above nor beasts below. Gazing all sides as eye can reach in order to mark the track no guidance is to be obtained save for the rotting bones of dead men which point the way."(Nilakanta Sastri,1956: 226). Crossing the desert Fa-Hsien arrived in Khoten which he saw as a "pleasant and prosperous kingdom with a numerous and flourishing population" The inhabitants were all Buddhists and the number of monks amounted to some thousands .Each home in the country had its own shrine in front of the door. All the monks were provided with all requirements and even the traveller monks were well looked after. Fa-Hsien speaks with high admiration of the disciplined lives led by the monks of Gomati Vihara where he witnessed how the 3000 monks who assembled for food at the refectory, with demeanour marked by reverent gravity, taking up their seats in regular order, maintaining perfect silence, without any sound emanating even from the alms-bowls and utensils.( Legge, 1965 : 18 ) Such details provided by Fa-Hsien are unique and fascinating; for there is no other source which provides us with such pictures of the daily life of those ancient Buddhist societies. Many communities in the early 5th century South Asia come alive through the pages of Fa-Hsien’s travel account.

We in Sri Lanka, who have a fairly well-documented history of the period through our chronicles, contemporary inscriptions and archaeological remains, find in Fa-Hsien’s account a living picture of the state of the Buddhist society in the capital Anuradhapura where he stayed for two years. Of particular interest to us is the account of the Festival in honour of the Tooth Relic, the most venerated object of worship in Sri Lanka.

That festival is still one of the most significant annual festivals in the country.We would never have got such details of Buddhist practices in Sri Lanka in the 5th century if not for the account given by Fa-Hsien Thero ( We shall come to that description later in this essay).

As records indicate Fa-Hsien arrived in Sri Lanka in 411CE, which according to our chronicles falls within the reign of King Mahanama (406-429CE) (UCHC, I,2:845 and K.M De Silva, 1973:366)As Chinese records indicate a Buddhist mission led by a monk named T’an-mo-I (Dhammapala?) carrying a jade statue of the Buddha had arrived in China some years back. The monarch who sent the mission has been identified as Upatissa I (365-406) Mahanama’s brother and predecessor. Religious relations with China would have got strengthened with the arrival here of Fa-Hsien and Mahanama himself sent another mission to China in the year 428 (UCHC,I,1:291).As Chinese records indicate the gifts he sent to the Chinese Emperor included two pieces of muslin, a product Sri Lanka was famous for at the time. The most important religious gift he sent was a replica of the Temple of the Tooth, a fact that indicates the respect the relic commanded in Sri Lanka as well as China. Another incident of great religious significance that occurred during this period was the sending of two bhikkhuni missions during the closing years of Mahanama’s reign and establishing the bhikkhuni order in China UCHC,I,1:18)

As mentioned earlier, Fa-Hsien’s travalogue contains many intimate details which no other historical source has been providing us. For example the fact that the Abhayagiri Stupa was constructed around a footprint of the Buddha, the fact that there were 5000 bhikkhus resident at Abhayagiri Viharaya complex. whereas its "rival" establishment the Maha Viharaya housed only 3000 bhikkhus. He also refers to a large Buddha image in Abhayagiri Viharaya which was "more than 20 cubits in height, glittering all over". On its palm of the right hand was placed a "priceless pearl" Perhaps Fa-Hsien’s reference to "nearly 60,000 bhikkhus" being there in Sri Lanka at the time indicates that the land was verily a Dhammadiipa (island of the Buddhist doctrine).He mentions that there were preaching halls at the head of all four principal streets in the capital city. And that on the "eighth, fourteenth and fifteenth days of the month " sermons were conducted therein. He also refers to the other footprint of the Buddha atop a mountain - obviously a reference to the Samantakuta (Sri Pada), whose shrine of the Footprint came into greater prominence later I history.

While Fa-Hsien Thero lived in the Abhayagiri Vihara whose doors were open to monks of diverse schools of Buddhist thought unlike the orthodox Maha Vihara, he also refers to "the hill with a vihara on it called Chaitya" which is a clear reference to Cetiyagiri , which came to be referred to as Mihintale in later times.The name mentioned by Fa-Hsien has an interesting pedigree. We learn from the Mahavamsa that the queen mother of Mahinda Thero who introduced Buddhism to the island, had got a Vihara constructed in her native place in India and because of its location the place came to be known as Cetiyagiri Vihara. As seen in Fa-Hsien’s account the Vihara complex was popularly known at the time as Cetiyagiri while the name Mihintale ( Mahind’s Hill), in honour of Mahinda Thero, came into parlance later.

There are other instances in which Fa_Hsien’s account corroborates the information given in the chronicles while providing further details. Fa_Hsien states that the nearly 60,000 monks in the country "get their food from the common stores. The king besides prepares elsewhere in the city a common supply of food for five or six thousand more. When any want, they take their great bowls and go (to the place of distribution) and take as much as the vessels will hold, all returning them full." (Legge: 105). This is obviously a reference to the Mahapali refectory constructed, according to the Mahavamsa , by Denanampiyatissa right at the beginning of the founding of the Mahavihara ( Ch.XX , verse23). The site has been identified by archaeologists and an inscription of the 10th century found in a massive stone trough for rice (bhattanava) while confirming that it was the site of the Mahapali stipulates that a certain portion of the rice transported to the city was collected as a tax to be handed over to the refectory (Rahula, 1956:74). Another interesting fact mentioned by Fa-Hsien is that when the king ( Mahanama)wanted to build a new Vihara, he marked out its boundaries by ploughing with a golden plough the four boundaries of the ground in which the Vihara was to be sited. This is exactly what the Mahavamsa records about the marking off of the boundaries (sima) of the Mahavihara, the first Buddhist Vihara in the island, by king Devanampiyatissa. Fa-Hsien describes how the king (Mahanama) "convoked a great assembly. After giving the monks a meal and presenting his offerings…A golden plough had been provided and the king himself turned a furrow on the four sides of the ground within which the building was to be"(Legge, 1965:109).The precedent found in the Mahavamsa is as follows :"When he (the king) had sought out the Theras and paid his respects to those to whom respect was due he ploughed a furrow in a circle …"( Ch. XV, verse 191).

Similarly, when Fa-Hsien gives us a long description about a sermon he heard wherein the theme was the alms-bowl of the Buddha which had by then become one of the most valuable possessions of the king of Sri Lanka, we are reminded of the Mahavamsa’s references to this particular relic on several occasions. First the Mahavamsa tells us that it was brought to the island during the reign of king Devanampiyatissa by Sumana Thero, one of the monks who accompanied Mahinda Thero in the first mission. It was brought down "filled with the relics of the Buddha" (Ch. XX, verse 10).The bowl-relic was such a prized possession that it was kept within the royal palace and was "worshipped continuously with many offerings" (verse 13) As time went by it came to be considered a national palladium : "the possession of the two relics, the Tooth Relic and the Alms Bowl was considered essential for a prince who wished to be recognized as the king" ( Rahula, 1956: 74) Incidentally, the Bowl Relic was considered as having magical powers. Thus we learn from the Mahavamsa that king Upatissa I, the predecessor of Mahanama during whose reign Fa-Hsien visited Sri Lanka, that he utilizsed the magical powers of the Bowl Relic to dispel a famine and a plague, and at the end instituted an order that the ceremony should be repeated in similar circumstances ((Ch.XXXVII, verses 189 – 98). Here we should recall that Upatissa himself was following the example of a similar incident during the life-time of the Buddha. On an occasion when the city of Visala was stricken by three "fears" (tun biya) a famine, pestilence and harassment by evil spirits, the Buddha taught the Ratana Sutta to a group of monks led by his chief attendant Ananada Thero and handing over his alms bowl asked them to fill it with water and go round the city chanting the Sutta while sprinkling the water from the bowl on the way, thus bringing an end to the three fears.

Fa-Hsien Thero’s account provides us with extremely valuable details about two highly important subjects. Their value rests on the fact that such details are not found in any other source and help us to understand more closely the Buddhist culture in Sri Lanka in the 5th century.One of these descriptions is about the annual festival in honour of the Tooth Relic, a festival which is held even today. Down the course of history, the Tooth Relic remained the most revered object of worship among the Sri Lankan Buddhists. A voluminous literature has grown round it . Its history and the rituals that are to be followed in its worship are recorded in a 13th - - 14th century work Dalada Sirita (The story of the Tooth Relic).But there is no Sri Lanka source which describes as Fa-Hsien does the ceremonies carried out during the annual festival when the Relic was taken out of its shrine and conducted in a procession through the capital city.

According to Fa-Hsien’s description there is first an official announcement ten days prior to the great festival: "The king grandly caprisons a large elephant, on which he mounts a man who speaks distinctly, and is dressed in royal robes, to beat a large drum and make the following proclamation. "The Bodhisatva during three Asankyakalpalaksas (a great period of time when the universe is formed and destroyed) manifested his activity, and did not spare his own life. He gave up kingdom, city ,wife…" The long proclamation proceeds thus to refer to the many lives of holiness and self-sacrifice where he did "undergo pain for the sake of all living." Reference is made next to the 45 years as the Buddha, bringing blessings upon mankind and finally attaining parinirvana (passing away). "Since that event for 1497 years , the light of the world has gone out and all living beings have had long continued sadness. Behold! Ten days after this , Buddha’s tooth will be brought forth and taken to the Abhayagiri Vihara" Everyone, monk or layman, "who wish to amass merit for themselves" are then admonished to "make the roads smooth and in good condition grandly adorn the lanes and byways, and provide abundant stores of flowers and incense to be used as offerings to it."

Thereafter, continues the description, "the king exhibits so as to line both sides of the road, the five hundred different bodily forms in which the Bodhisatva in course of his history has appeared : here as Sudana, here as Sama …" and so on referring to the previous births of the Buddha. "All these figures are brightly coloured and grandly executed, looking as if they were alive" As proclaimed earlier, the Tooth Relic is brought out on the specified day and taken in procession to the "hall of the Buddha in the Abhayagiri Vihara. There monks and laics are collected in crowds. They burn incense, light lamps and perform all the prescribed services day and night without ceasing, till ninety days have been completed when (the tooth) is returned to the Vihara within the city." Interestingly, some of the ceremonies mentioned by Fa-Hsien are continued, sometimes with modifications, to this day. Since the 18th century, during the last phase of Sinhalese kingship, the Festival in the month of Aesala (July-August) is done in association with the shrines of the four Guardian Deities in Kandy, the last capital of the Sinhala kingdom. The proclamation of the holding of the festival is done today by a ceremony called kap situveema which are associated with the shrines of the deities . The Festival continues for a fortnight and on the last day, which invariably is the full-moon day of the month, the relic is taken to a Buddhist shrine on the outer border of the city, kept there for the whole night, and the forenoon of the following day, during which time offerings and ceremonies continue throughout, and returned by procession to the Tooth Relic shrine in the afternoon (Legge, 1965: 105 - 106).

The other interesting description found in Fa-Hsien’s account is about the funeral practices concerning a religious personage. He describes here the funeral rites of a monk "of such lofty virtue, and so holy and pure in his observance of the disciplinary rules, that the people surmised that he was an Arahat." (Incidentally, the monk about whose holiness Fa-Hsien speaks, belonged to the Mahavihara, the rival of Abhayagiri where he was staying . This is another instance of Fa-Hsien’s impartiality in recording facts)) The funeral rites performed thus were those afforded to an Arahat. A great pile of wood , over thirty cubits square were amassed. And, near the top of the pile sandal and other kinds of fragrant wood were laid. A stairway covered with white cloth was constructed on the side to ascend the pile. "With clean white hair-cloth, almost like silk they wrapped the body round and round. They made a large carriage-frame.." in order to transport the body in ceremony. "At the time of the cremation," continues Fa-Hsien, "the king and the people in multitudes from all quarters, collected together, and presented offerings of flowers and incense…. The car was lifted on the pile all over which oil of sweet basil was poured and then a light was applied. While the fire was blazing, everyone, with a reverent heart, pulled off his upper garment, and threw it, with his feather fan and umbrella, from a distance into the midst of the flames, to assist the burning. When the cremation was over, they collected and preserved the bones, and proceeded to erect a tope." (Legge, 1965:107 – 8).



Fa-Hsien speaks of Sri Lanka as a "temperate and attractive land without any difference of summer and winter. The vegetation is always luxurious." These were the conditions that helped to make Sri Lanka a thriving agricultural civilization. Fa-Hsien states that "cultivation proceeds whenever men think fit: there are no fixed seasons for it" (Legge, 1965:102). Obviously the writer is comparing Sri Lanka with China where there were winters and summers and there was a specific cultivation period. As we know, however, there would have been cultivation periods here too. But they were based on a different climatic criteria, like the monsoons.



As we noted at the beginning of this essay, Sri Lanka has been from early times a centre of international trade. Fa-Hsien himself noticed in the city of Anuradhapura there were "many Vaishya elders" (Legge, 1965:104) which seems to mean that those who engaged themselves in trading activity were a prominent group in the city. He also noted the "Sabaean merchants" as a special category among them. Translators of Fa-Hsien’s writings have identified this word as referring to Arab merchants who have been traditionally the most prominent among the international traders in the South Asian region (Legge, 1965: 104, fn.2).



Finally there is one episode Fa-Hsien records in his account on Sri Lanka which is full of human interest. One day while he was in the hall of the magnificent jade Buddha image at Abhayagiri Viharaya he saw "a merchant presenting as his offering a fan of white silk" As the translators have noted this fan would have been a Chinese one "such as Fa-Hsien had seen and used in his native land" (Legge, 1965:103, fn.1) The sight of the silk fan triggered off a flood of nostalgic feeling which had been gathering in his mind for a long time.He writes " Several years had now elapsed since Fa-Hsien left the land of Han; the men with whom he had been in intercourse had all been of regions strange to him; his eyes had not rested on an old and familiar hill or river, plant or tree: his fellow-travellers, moreover, had been separated from him, some by death, and others flowing off in different directions; no face or shadow was now with him but his own and a constant sadness was in his heart…and the tears of sorrow involuntarily filled his eyes and fell down" (Legge, 1965: 102 - 103).



We note here the sadness and perhaps self-pity felt by the traveller, now about 78 years old. He knew that he had come to the last lap of his journey and the next step was to embark on the journey home. In a way he would have been happy after the fulfilment of his mission. With that feeling he would have had the opportunity to look back and ponder on his whole adventure, a luxury he would not have dared to enjoy so far in fear of losing the resolve he had set his mind on. Although a Buddhist monk he too had his feelings and desire to be with his roots at the final days of his life. However, the fact that he was still determined to do as much as he could do for the Buddhist cause in his homeland is attested in the fact we noted earlier that as soon as he set foot in China he set about the next task of translating into Chinese the books he had brought down with so much difficulty. Obviously he wanted to complete his mission. References Dutt, Nalinaksha. , 1956, Chapter in 2500 Years of Buddhism, ed. P.V.Bapat, New Delhi, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting Legge, James, `965 , A Record of Buddhist Kingdoms, New York, Paragon Books Reprint Mahavamsa, Part 2 , titled Culavamsa, Tr. by W.Geiger, Colombo, Department of Information Paranavitana, S. , 1959 , Chapter in University of Ceylon, History of Ceylon, Colombo, Ceylon University Press Rahula, Walpola 1956, Early History of Buddhism in Ceylon, Colombo, Gunasena & Co Sastri, K.A.Nilakanta 1956, Chapter in 2500 Years of Buddhism ed. P.V.Bapat, New Delhi, Misistry of Information and Broadcasting Weerasinghe, S.G.M. 1995, A History of the Cultural Relations Between Sri Lanla and China, Colombo, The Central Cultural Fund.